Introduction. In the article we defend a claim that criticisms and counterarguments play a more important role in modeling and evaluating arguments than defending and supporting the thesis. The novelty of this idea lies in that it shifts the main focus of the study of argumentation from the support and proof, with which it is traditionally associated, to criticism and refutation. Compared to the support and proof, criticism and refutation play more important role in the context of soft skills and communication in the practical activities, including obtaining and verifying information. The relevance of our study is dictated by the fact that argumentation is essential in both of the areas of activities, the importance of which is increasing at the present stage.

Methodology and sources. We identify three ways to understanding criticism with respect to three approaches to understanding of arguments, – inferential, dialogical and abstract. The inferential view relies on verification and aims to justify a conclusion by deriving it from premises. The dialogical view sees in it the grounds offered by its author to its addressee. The author aims at achieving the latter's consent to its conclusion, and the acceptability of the arguments is verified by both justifying their conclusions and rejecting objections to them. The dialogical view relies on the principles of verification and falsification. The abstract view abstracts from the internal structure of arguments and evaluates their acceptability through the falsification, conveying the rejection of arguments in defense of the opposite conclusion.

Results and discussion. The inferential view presupposes one-step criticism based on its analysis and final assessment, the dialogical one presupposes a multi-step revision of the assessment, and the abstract view implies arguments’ ability to reject counterarguments and demonstrates its role in defending the set of arguments to which it belongs protecting many arguments from criticism to which it belongs.

Conclusion. In the dialogical and abstract approaches, objections and criticisms of arguments play a more important role in justifying and defending arguments than the defense and support defined by them, which play a leading role in the inferential approach to arguments.

Introduction. The article analyzes the structure of the epistemology of knowledge of weak artificial intelligence in comparison with the structure of human knowledge. The article was written within the framework of one of the most demanded branch sections of philosophy – the philosophy of artificial intelligence. The novelty of the research is based on the idea of applying the analysis of knowledge developed within the framework of analytical epistemology to the field of artificial intelligence.

Methodology and sources. The article is written in the framework of analytical tradition in philosophy. We use conceptual analysis to analyze the most crucial aspects of knowledge. This method assumes that in order to explain a complex phenomenon, it is necessary to analyze its components. This method formed the basis of an analytical discussion about knowledge in the second half of the 20th century. The article also uses comparative analysis.

Results and discussion. People's knowledge is characterized by three essential characteristics – the presence of information-bearing mental states, their reliability, and factuality. We analyzed to what extent the information-carrying internal states of a weak AI correspond to these qualities. The authors concluded that internal states can be considered beliefs if they are weakly interpreted, they can have a high degree of reliability under certain conditions, and they can have factuality if we accept that a weak AI has beliefs.

Conclusion. A weak interpretation of the concept of belief allows us to argue that neural networks are capable of having beliefs. A more rigorous interpretation of the concept of belief also includes the requirement to understand the meaning. However, we do not have at our disposal a satisfactory theory of understanding meaning. In this case, the condition of reliability is the only criterion of knowledge to which the functional states of machines can correspond in the case of certain tasks, in connection with which the problem of generality arises especially acutely.

Introduction. The problem of human being as a subject of the historical space-time continuum is actualized by social transformations and the change of types of rationality. The anthropological nature of space-time determines the interest in reflection on human being as a historical individual. We could note an increased interest in spatial and temporal problems in Russian philosophical thought in the realities of the 20^th century. The perception of historical time in its daily eventfulness brings us closer to understanding the fate of society in this period of Russian history that cannot be unambiguously assessed.

Methodology and sources. The author relied on the provisions of philosophical anthropology about the human dimension of historical time and space. The initial basis of the research was the provisions of the author's concept of the unity of a human being and the space-time continuum. The anthropological content of historical space-time analytics predetermined the use of systemic, culturological and axiological approaches. The system approach has determined the application of source studies, phenomenological and hermeneutic analysis of the studied phenomena.

Results and discussion. The importance of anthropocentrism for understanding historical individuality is substantiated. The author made an attempt to overcome the extremes of the anthropocentric and progressive models of the historical process on the basis of the unity of anthropocentrism, cultural centrism and sociocentrism. History is revealed as the time and space of self-realization of its subjects. The understanding of history is derived from a person's ability to experience and organize events. Also in the article is stated the necessity of incorporation of personal time and private space into the historical process as its constructs. It is shown that the knowledge of history is the result of the identification of I and We.

Conclusion. The author reveals the thesis about human being as a historical personality. The anthropological nature of historical space-time determines the meanings, contributes to the ordering of everyday events by the subjects of history, provides an opportunity to determine the vector of cognition of history.

Introduction. The study of the semantics of singular terms, that is, such expressions of language that are used to designate a single concrete object, which, first of all, can be sensibly perceived and be a component of our practice in the physical sense, has been going on for several decades. But, according to the author, the essence of singular terms still needs to be clarified in many ways. Does analysis require the meaning of singular terms for tools outside the semantics? If so, what tools should be used? We would like to outline some considerations that may help in answering these questions.

Methodology and sources. A considerable number of works by famous researchers of the language are devoted to the disclosure and description of possible approaches to the problems of using singular terms (see, for example, the works of B. Russell, M. Cresswell,
Z. Vendler, D. Ninan, M. Schwager, etc.). This article attempts to expand the methodology with phenomenological analysis and description, what explain the citation of M. Merleau-Ponty, A. Schutz, E. Husserl, N.V. Motroshilova, and others.

Results and discussion. On the one hand, we classify various linguistic units as singular terms, distinguished according to the specificity that their use has. On the other hand, endowing singular terms with a special status, we are forced to ask ourselves about the prerequisites for the «genesis» of such terms. The work demonstrated the necessity and effectiveness of the phenomenological method, which performs the propaedeutic and explanatory functions in relation to the semantic analysis of singular terms itself.  The reason for this is the close connection between the natural language and the sensory world as a given, which, as the research has shown, cannot be ignored.

Conclusion. The closedness of semantics in itself limits the possibilities of analyzing a natural language, in connection with which it seems to us quite clear the actual need to turn to phenomenology. We tried to illustrate the importance of considering the genetic aspects of the use of singular terms and the relationship of their pre-linguistic genesis with the uniqueness of the status of these linguistic units. Therefore, we have good reasons to turn to the phenomenological description of perception and to assert its conceptual connection with the semantics of singular terms.

Introduction. The article deals with the problem of professional activity and education of persons with disabilities. The implementation of the ideas of inclusive education could be successful if the experience of persons with disabilities who have productively built their professional trajectory and actively participate in public, educational, sociocultural and other initiatives of modern society is taken into account.

Methodology and sources. The problem of professional and creative realization of people with disabilities is considered in line with the socio-educational approach, which implies the need to integrate people with disabilities into all spheres of modern society, as well as in line with the environmental approach, which involves considering the problem of the quality of life of people with disabilities. The article is based on the articles of such authors as O.S. Andreeva, A.V. Gruzintsev, M.A. Dymochka, A.A. Kirillovykh, S.N. Kashtanova, V.A. Kudryavtsev, S.S. Lebedeva, N.T. Selezneva, A.V. Cherdakova, as well as materials of 25 scientific and practical conferences (1994–2020). The article uses methods of content analysis of an array of 1553 articles based on conference materials, as well as the case study method.

Results and discussion. In the process of evaluating the array of publications, the authors concluded that persons with disabilities actively participating in professional activities and social work reflected many aspects of the problem of inclusive education. Theoretical and practical conclusions and examples given in the case study showed that the experience of people with disabilities working in the socio-cultural and educational fields, who develop the inclusive capabilities of people with disabilities with the help of advanced digital technologies, seems to be especially successful. An analysis of the professional activities of persons with disabilities led to the conclusion that its meaning and essence are associated with the formation of an inclusive society.

Conclusion. The authors conclude that people with disabilities are the initiators and organizers of relevant areas of activity that contribute to the active support of people with disabilities in the process of their lifelong education.

Introduction. The article provides an overview of the constructionist approach in sociology in the concerning the phenomenon of corruption as a social problem. The relevance of the work is determined by the need to examine the possibilities of sociology in the study of anti-corruption discourse and the construction of corruption in the public consciousness.

Methodology and sources. The issue has grown in importance considering the need to study the perception of corruption in society and the processes of its construction. The methodological basis of the work is the analysis of primary sources (works by M. Spektor,
J. Kitsuse, J. Best) and research publications, including the retrospective analysis of the theoretical prerequisites for the development of a constructionist approach in the sociology of social problems. This paper gives a detailed overview of the concept of social problems, which is important for the development of theoretical and empirical studies of various social problems from constructionist positions.

Results and discussion. The paper presents the features of two directions within the framework of social constructivism: strict and contextual. The author identifies two main areas of corruption research in a constructionist discourse: the analysis of the construction of corruption as a social phenomenon and the analysis of the construction of deviance, which correspond to the phenomenological (strict) and contextual directions. This study defines the main theoretical aspects of the constructivist approach, its ideological prerequisites and traces the development of the main theoretical directions of constructivism within the interactionist approach in sociology. As a result of the analysis, the author highlights the limitations of the constructionist approach, which are significant for choosing a concept and conducting research and pays attention to the possibilities of developing an integrative approach.

Conclusion. Social constructivism has heuristic potential in exploring the discourse of corruption as a social problem and the construction of its deviance, which is a promising area of research on the perception of corruption in modern Russian society.

Introduction. The article analyzes the basic concepts of ethno-cultural discourse, and raises the problem of the uncertainty of the conceptual apparatus, on the basis of which the theory of intercultural interactions is built, which makes it difficult to introduce the results of research into practice. The authors propose to clarify the categories that are relevant specifically for Russia at the present time, in the context of the formation of the foundations of the state's cultural policy and the adoption of relevant legislative acts. The subject of the research is the system of categories underlying the theories of modernization and theories of cultural interactions.

Methodology and sources. The analysis of the categorical apparatus of modern ethno-cultural policy is based on methodological principles that have developed in science in the process of a cultural-centric turn, which was laid down by the works of T. Parsons and P. Sorokin.

Results and discussion. The paradigmatic nature and indefinite use of such categories as “traditional values” and “traditional cultures” creates conditions for speculation and does not allow building a balanced cultural policy. And the unreasonable desire to the conservation of archaic cultural patterns leads to serious contradictions in the goals and results of the implementation of cultural policy. It is concluded that in order to make effective political decisions, it is necessary to take into account the difference in the use of concepts in the social sciences and the humanities and in the political sphere. It is necessary to separate the so-called “traditional values” and archaic societies, understanding by the former the values traditional for a particular cultural system, regardless of the concept of progress. And under the second – archaic cultures (and societies, carriers of these cultures), one should understand cultures that were formed on the basis of primitive technology to ensure the viability of the population.

Conclusion. In such a paradigm of cultural observation of observations of archaic cultures, one should build not only from the study of the intrinsic value of culture, but also from the disclosure of equal accessibility of humanitarian benefits (health protection, choice of occupation, accessibility of cultural achievements and education, etc.).

Introduction. The article analyzes the semiotic aspects of the representation of artificial intelligence in the socio-cultural space and their influence on the nature of social development. The spread and penetration of technologies into social and political processes using artificial intelligence (AI) is accompanied by active discussions in the socio-political environment. Artificial intelligence is considered as one of the most important resources of social and political development, so the desire of states, politicians and public organizations to determine the semantic framework of its public perception is understandable.

Methodology and sources. The theoretical foundations of the work were the classic works on semiotics by Ch. S. Pierce, Ch. W. Morris, as well as theoretical works on modern political semiotics (I.V. Fomin, M.V. Ilyin and others). To work with the empirical base, analyzes of documents (reports and materials from UNESCO, the European Commission, the Royal Society of London, Stanford University), public opinion polls (VTsIOM), discourse analysis, semantic and content analysis of materials from Russian and foreign media were used.

Results and discussion. As a result of the study, we found that the main contradiction that accompanies the understanding of artificial intelligence, its essence and purpose at all levels of socio-political discourse is the polarization of public ideas about AI as a control tool and (or) a development tool. The contextual fields were also outlined, within which further development of the semiosis of artificial intelligence is possible.

Conclusion. To understand the nature of the representation of technologies using AI in socio-political discourse and to manage this process, an interdisciplinary approach and an appeal to the scientific potential of the social sciences and the humanities, in particular, semiotics, are appropriate, which makes it possible to study the semiosis of technology at the semantic, syntactic and pragmatic levels. It also seems promising to turn to a comparative analysis of cultural and historical traditions and national-state models of social management that specifically integrate AI into social processes.

Introduction. The article continues a series of publications on the linguistics of relations (hereinafter referred to as R-linguistics) and is devoted to the study of the functioning of logical connectives with nouns and adjectives. The article is the second part of the discussion of internal logic, which examines the use of logical connectives within sentences. This research involves the formation of semantic logic, that is, logic that takes into account the semantics of sentences.

Methodology and sources. The results obtained in the previous parts of the series are used as research tools. To develop the necessary mathematical representations in the field of internal logic, the previously formulated semantic concepts and operations are used.

Results and discussion. Two types of negation are introduced and their properties are defined. The properties of the linguistic model are formulated. The use of logical connectives with nouns and adjectives is analyzed. It is shown that the connective NOT can be attributed to both external and internal logic. The connectives AND and OR do not have a logical content, but serve to identify the state of a particular concept. Three semantic substitutions are defined. The reasons for the stability of semantic interpretation when changing the state of relations are substantiated.

Conclusion. Abandoning the traditional view of natural language logic means abandoning logical operations and inference. This forces us to consider logical operations that now take into account semantics, since they are related to the structure of the linguistic model. Analysis of the functioning of logical connectives with nouns and adjectives shows that they either provide identification of the state of concepts, or can be transferred to external logic, or can operate within the framework of a linguistic model. The formulated substitution rules provide semantically correct substitutions and justify the stability of semantic interpretation in the conditions of changing states of concepts.

Introduction. The authors of the research aimed to determine the level of students' interest in foreign languages, leading motives, as well as the presence of difficulties arising under the study of a foreign language. The importance of motivation in the process of learning foreign languages in a non-linguistic university is emphasized.

Methodology and sources. The authors of the research describe the questionnaire survey and analysis of the results obtained in its course. This research involved 267 students of 1–2 courses of the Pharmaceutical Faculty of the Saint Petersburg State Chemical and Pharmaceutical University.

Results and discussion. The modern pharmaceutical industry is actively developing, which implies the exchange of technology and knowledge between representatives of different countries. Most pharmaceutical companies have subsidiaries all over the world. A demanded employee needs to have the skill of effective intercultural dialogue in this professional field. In recent decades, the role of foreign languages has increased all over the world, and the necessity to know them is generally recognized.

Conclusion. The paper has shown the level of the development of motivation for learning a foreign language by students in order to further increase the level of development of their motivation in the learning foreign languages. The conclusion was made that student motivation stands out as one of the main factors in achieving success in both educational and professional activities and, therefore, should be a priority for all teachers.

Introduction. This article is an attempt to extract information about the interactions of dialects of the Indo-European dialect continuum with each other using a comparative analysis of the basic vocabularies of some Indo-European (IE) descendant languages.

The search for external borrowings and influence of a common substrate would help to clarify the ethno-linguistic surrounding of the area where the IE proto-dialects developed.

In turn, these data are actual being pro and contra arguments of the well-known hypotheses about the IE ancestral home.

Methodology and sources. The number of mutually understandable basic lexemes taken in relation to the number of lexemes in the compared lists was chosen as a measure of the interaction of IE dialects, indicators of their commonality.

207-word Swadesh lists of 12 languages in their possibly more ancient states were analysed.

For geographical binding of the IE language areal we have selected cross-borrowings from/to neighboring / substrate non-IE languages, the ancient settlement areas of native speakers of which are considered well-known.

Results and discussion. The results of the comparison of the basic vocabularies of 12 IE languages have been interpreted in the form of a graph demonstrating the relative location of areas of the corresponding IE dialects. Lexemes meaning 'predator (bear, lion, etc.)', 'cattle (bull, ox)' determined the ethno-linguistic surrounding of the IE areal.

Conclusion. The relevant linguistic data permitted to identify in the IE dialect continuum the core of proto-dialects: Baltic, Slavic, Aryan and Italic – and partially superimposed dialect subcontinua:

– Balto-Greco-Aryo-Tocharo-Anatolian subcontinuum in the northern part of the IE areal;

– Tocharo-Celto-Germanic subcontinuum in the eastern part;

– Germano-Celto-Italo-Greco-Armeno-Baltic subcontinuum in the southern part;

– Balto-Slavo-Italo-Aryan subcontinuum in the western part.

The representation of the Proto-IE areal as a dialect continuum solves a number of difficulties inherent in the most common model of a single IE proto-language.

Introduction. This paper presents an analysis of the language indicators of communicative behavior of US presidential candidates during election debates. The scientific novelty consists of determining the specifics of the characteristics of the communicative behavior of the discursive personality, which form the basis of the corresponding social type, which can be identified using the methods of linguistic analysis. The study of the discursive personality is reduced to a description of the types of its performative actions; identification of types of communicative tonality that characterize the manner of behavior of a discursive personality and make it recognizable; identification of axiological characteristics of the studied discursive personality. The relevance of the work lies in the study of the problematic aspects of the discursive personality, explaining the specifics of the models of communicative behavior in situations of political communication.

Methodology and sources. This study used the methods of corpus linguistics and the interpretative method of discourse analysis. The texts of the genre of election debates, which took place from 2000 to 2020, became the empirical basis of this study. The volume of the corpus of these texts amounted to more than 1.5 million words. A corpus method of keywords, which allows to identify unique tokens of pre-election speeches of each of the presidential candidates; a qualitative analysis method that explains typical communicative actions that representatives of the two ruling parties of the United States, were used to establish the characteristics of the communicative behavior of US presidential candidates.

Results and discussion. The results of a comparative study of the discursive personality of the US presidential candidate representatives of the Republican and Democratic parties are presented. The study of keywords showed typical tactics of communicative behavior of candidates for US presidential candidates of the Democratic and Republican parties. It is established that presidential candidates from both parties use prosecution tactics in election debates, Republicans are more likely to resort to direct accusation tactics accusations of violating pragmatic, instrumental values, Democrats prefer indirect accusation tactics, which are based on accusations of violation of moral norms and values by political opponents.

Conclusion. The discursive personality of the US presidential candidate reflects the variable socio-ideological component of political discourse, which is manifested in a specific set of speech strategies and tactics and language structures that implement them.